THEORY - THEORY IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

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THEORY - THEORY IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

1. REINFORCEMENT THEORY (THEORY STRENGTHENING)
Derived from behaviorism approach. Consisting of several theories, namely:
1. Theories of Social Learning and Imitation (Social Learning Theory & Imitation)
a. Classical theory of social learning and imitation (Miller & Dollard)
Mechanism of Imitation:
a. Same Behavior: The behavior occurs when two people behave the same reply (response) to stimuli / cue the same.
b. Matched-dependent behavior: Behavior imitate others is more superior, in which the other party to adjust his behavior and will depend on the first.
c. Copying: The behavior mimics on the basis of cues (behavior) given by the model, including a model of behavior in the past.
Cue  Internal Drive Response    Reward external Response
• Cue (Cue): stimuli that determine when and where a reply will arise behavior and behavior reply what would happen
• Drive: a very strong stimuli that drives the organism to behave
• Response: Behavior reply

b. Observational Learning (Bandura)

Proposed by Bandura and Waltens, states that behavior, behavior imitation is a form of association of a stimulus to other stimuli. This theory may also explain the onset of symptoms in the copycat same emotion with emotion on the model. According to their influence on the behavior of the model tingah copycat behavior / replacement there are 3 kinds:
a. Efeck modeling (Modeling effect), where the impersonator perform a new behavior (through associations so that in accordance with the behavior of the model.
b. Inhibiting effect (inhibition) and remove barriers (disinhibition, ie behavior that is incompatible with the behavior of the model inhibited the incidence, while behavior in accordance with the model-hambatanya abolished barriers that arise behavior become apparent.
c. Ease effects (facilitation effect), where behavior has been studied copycat prnah easier resurfaced by observing the behavior of the model.

2. Reinforcement-Exchange Social Theories (Social Reinforcement Theory)
a. Sociological Behavioral Model of Social Exchange (Theory of basic social behavior) (Homans)
Homans tried to explain the relationship between two people using the guiding principle of the economy (buying and selling). He argues that the psychological processes that occur in two people who salimg interact substantially similar to the buying and selling process in which both sides put a price and profit
Based on operant conditioning, which is applied to human social behavior, especially interpersonal interaction. Interaction: socially interdependent exchange of activities (exchange social activities).
Basic proposition of this theory:

1. Success Proposition (Proposition success)
2. Stimulus Proposition (Prooposisi Stimulus)
3. Value Proposition (value proposition)
4. Deprivation-satiation Proposition
5. Aggression-Approval Proposition
6. Rationality Proposition (Proposition rationality)

b. Theory of Interpersonal Interdependence (Theory of interaction results) Kelley & Thibaut
The relationship of two people (or more) in which they are interdependent to achieve positive results. Social interactions mutually dependent (interdependent) aims to maximize positive outcomes for each participant interaction.

c. Equity Theory (functional theory of the interaction of authoritarian) Walster, Berscheid, and Adams
o Talking about justice and injustice in interpersonal relationships
o On the basis of the principle of strengthening and metaphors (legal) economics
o Each contribution is given in a relationship is called input. Usually negative, eg effort, time etc.
o Something that is received from a known relationship outcomes, usually positive affection, money, knowledge etc.

2. Field Theoretical Orientation (Orientation Field Theory)
Figures: Kurt Lewin, Tolman, Wheeler, Lashley & Brunswik.
Is associated with Gestalt approach. Recognized the importance of behavioral contexts (field / situation).
An important feature of this approach:
a) The use constructive methods
b) dynamic approach
c) The emphasis on psychological processes
d) The analysis is based on the overall situation
e) The difference between systematic and historical issues
f) the mathematical representation of the psychological situation

A Theory of Interpersonal Relations (Field Theory of Interpersonal relations)
Figures: Heider
Interested in a common-sense psychology in explaining interpersonal behavior. There are several aspects of behavior:
a) Feeling of others
b) the other as a perceiver
c) analysis of the action
d) The experience of desire and pleasure
e) The role of environmental variables
i. Social Penetration Theory
Figures: Altman and Taylor.
There are three factors that affect social relationships, namely:
a) the personal characteristics of the participants
b) The results of the exchange
c) the situational context
ii. Theories of crowding
Figures: Schopler & Stokols
There are some basic assumptions, namely:
a) crowding cause psychological stress
b) Stress arises because perceived loss of control
c) Bring up the coping behavior.
d) crowding will be more intense and coping behaviors will be more difficult when associated with perceived threats to personal security.
iii. A Theory of Hope
Figure: Stotland.
There are two key terms, namely: hope and degree of hopefullness
Hope: expectation of achieving goals. Degree of hopefullness: one's perception of the possibility of obtaining the goal
Principal assumptions:
1. Motivation organisms to achieve the goal, is covering the perception of the ability to achieve it, and the perception of how important these goals.
2. The higher the perception of the above, the higher the positive affect- her.
3. The lower the perception to achieve the goal, and the higher the rate of interest of these goals, the anxiety will be higher.
4. The organism will be motivated to avoid or get out of anxiety. The higher the anxiety, the higher the motivation to avoid

3. Role Theory (Theory of Roles)
Role as the subject matter is more than a theoretical framework. History of role theory:
Taken from the terminology of the theater of ancient Greek and Roman era. Used in the social sciences with little change in definition. Role someone will depend on the role of others and its social context. The concept of role is an interdisciplinary concept. Theory of modern role is initially a "byproduct" of various social research. The idea grew from various disciplines have led to role theory is not tied to any one particular discipline
In the focus on the theory of Biddle and Thomas that divides the term in the role in four categories, namely:
a. People who take part daam social intraksi
b. Behaviors that appear in the interaction
c. The position of people in behavior
d. The link between people and behavior

4. Cognitive Theory Orientation (Orientation Cognitive Theory)
Some main features:
a. Associated with cognitive processes
b. Basing itself on the mental concepts, such as. Knowing, meaning, understanding, and concious Similar experiences as a data
c. Cognitive events in different levels of consciousness
d. The molar approach, not molecular
e. The first behavior is nothing more important than behavior later
f. The learning process can occur without the drive and tension reduction

There are several theories, namely:
1. Krech & Crutchfield's Cognitive Theory
There are a few principles:
a. Motivation is molar, involving the need and goals
b. Molar dynamics is the result of a series of psychological conditions nearby (Immediate psychological field)
c. Instability psychological condition will cause tension, which affects perception, cognition, and action
d. Despair achieve goals or failure in tension reduction will appear in a variety of adaptive and maladaptive behaviors.
e. Characteristics achievement of goals and tension reduction is most often arise, will be studied and developed.

2. Consistency Cognitive Theories
Consists of several sub theories more, namely:
a. Cognitive balance theory (Heider, Newcomb, Osgood and Tannenbaum)
First proposed by Heider. This theory stems in persaan that of the person (P), for others (X), and other things (X).
b. Theory of A-B-X
Common hypothesis proposed by Newcomb (1937.1957), that the law-the law that governs the relationship between beliefs and attitudes-sikapyang there in person. Teri is no different from the theory of POX (Heider), only Newcomb added factor of communication between individuals and between groups -hubungan relationship.
c. The principle of harmony
This theory about forecasting a change of attitude in certain experimental situations. This theory was put forward by Osgood & Tannenbaun (1955), can predict changes in attitude, both towards the object, but the variety of behavior that can be covered by this theory is more limited.
d. Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger)
Proposed by Festinger (1957). The essence of this theory are among the elements of a relationship that does not fit that cause dissonance (irregularities) cognitive. Cognitive dissonance raises the pressure to reduce the dissonance and avoid peningkatanya. Results of this pressure manifested in changes in cognition, behavior change, and menghadakan themselves on the information and opinions are new that have been selected.
• Source Dissonance:
a. Logical inconsistencies
b. Cultural values (cultural mores)
c. Public Opinion
d. Past experience

• The consequences of Dissonance
1. Reduction of dissonance
a. Changing behavior
b. Changing environmental cognitive elements
c. Adding new cognitive elements
2. Avoidance dissonance
e. Theory of psychological reactance (Brehm)
In general, cognitive consistency theory emphasizes that cognitive conditions that are inconsistent will cause inconvenience and will lead people to behave in a certain order to achieve consistency in order to obtain comfort back.

3. Theories Attribution
Most of the development of the concept of Fritz Heider. There are several sub-theories in this theory, namely:
a. Theory of Correspondent inferences (Jones and Davis)
This theory describes how an observer determines the attitude, nature or other characteristics based on what is known menegnai that person in one situation and a particular behavior.
There are several assumptions
o This theory is only focused on one episode of behavior alone
o This theory involves only two people are actors and observers.
o Observers will provide a simple and immediate assessment was also against perpetrators

b. External Attribution theory (Kelley), consisting of a 3-dimensional (1) distinctiveness (2) consistency (3) consensus
This theory was developed by Kelley (1967) which is based on the work of Heider. He tried to not take into account personal factors in its analysis, and try to use as much as possible environmental factors or external factors.
c. Self Perception Theory (Bem): Self perception theory: someone assess perasaaannya own behavior and the behavior that appear based on context or specific conditions. For example, when we give money to a beggar, we nerasa as generous, though it may at first we were not sincere.
Social comparison theory
Formulated by Festinger (1950.1954) influence the process and compete with each other to behave in social interaction caused by the need to assess themselves and this need can be met invitation to compare with others. There are two things that are compared in this requirement, namely, opinions and abilities.

4. Theories of Social Comparison, Judgment and Perception (Social Theory, Comparative Judgment and Perception)
o Social Comparison Theory (Festinger)
• The process affect each other and compete with each other's behavior in social interaction brought about the need to assess themselves (self evaluation), and this need can be met by comparing yourself with others.
• There are two things being compared
1. The opinion (opinion)
2. The ability (ability)
• Basic principles
1. The desire to evaluate the opinions and abilities
2. Compare opinions and their skill with others
3. Comparing with a group of friends and people nearby
4. Comparing with people who have excess
5. Rejecting the comparison with the group that has the ability is much different
6. Comparison of the social will lead to the same pressure

o Social Judgment Theory (Sherif)
Social decision theory is a theoretical perspective is most closely related to Muzafer Sheriff and Carl Havland. The central idea of social judgment theory is that the change in attitude is mediated by a judgmental process and effects used to convince people.
In this theory also explains the existence of two kinds of effects that arise as a result of the process of assessing or consider the message that the effect of assimilation (assimilation effect) and the effect of contrast (contrast effect).
Assimilation effect occurs when someone puts a persuasive message in the range of reception and the messages closer to the benchmark statement (frame of reference) that exist. Because the message is approaching benchmark statement, then the message will be assimilated or considered similar to the existing standards and used as one group. This assimilation is a rubber band effect, whereby every new statement can be "pulled" closer to the benchmark statement so that it appears to be more acceptable than the present. People who become targets of persuasion will judge the message or the statement appears in line with the benchmark.
Statements that are within the range of rejection would seem more different (contrast) and contrary to the benchmark statement despite the fact that the difference is not too far away. Because we enlarge the difference then a message that seems to be completely at variance with the existing benchmark. Finally we reject the message.
Examples are legalizing marijuana: One might think that all must use marijuana illegal, or that its use is only permitted for medical reasons, or marijuana should be legalized for everyday use.

Theory - the theory according to their form:
1. Theory of Constructive (according to the terms Elienstein, 1934 and Mark, 1951) or the theory weave / cioncaterated (kapian, 1951), the theory that tries to build linkages (synthesis) between simple phenomena.
2. Theory of Principle (Einstein, 1934) or reductive theory (Marx, 1951) or the theory jenjangan / hierarchical (Kaplan, 1964) is a theory that tries to analyze a phenomenon into the portions are small.
According to it there are two kinds of theory (Kaplan, 1964)
a. Molar theory, the theory of the individual as a whole, for example, about the behavior of individuals in the group.
b. Momolekular theory, which is about the functions of the terms in the body of an organism.

According to it, there are two kinds of theory (Kaplan, 1964) as follows:
a. Molar theory, that of the individual as a whole, for example, the theory of the behavior of individuals in the group.
b. Molecular theory, the theory of functions - the function of nerves in the body of an organism

Theories that by Psychoanalysts
1. psychodynamic theory of function group
By Bion (1948-1951) based his theory upon the observations and results of participation and therapy groups, according to the group Bikan just a collection of individuals, but also a unit with its own characteristics and emotional dynamics.
2. The theory of group development
Proposed by Bennis and Shepard (1956). Also influenced by S. Freud, Sullivan (1953), Lewin (1947) and Schutz (1955). This theory contains the group development process that occurs in the interaction between people who are in a training situation.
3. FIRO (Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation = basic orientation of interpersonal relationships)
Three-dimensional theory of interpersonal behavior.
Proposed by Schutz (1955.1958), on interpersonal behaviors in relation to the orientation of each individual on the other individi.

4. Theory psikonalis about social attitudes
By Sarnoff (1960) concerning the attitude (attitude) described by ego defense mechanisms.
Theories of Group Process
1. Theory sintalitas group of Chartel (1948.1951)
Found to be able to make changes appropriate scientific everything should be described, measured and classified quickly and accurately. With his theory Chartel also has developed a branch of psychology that dnamakan personality Psychology Group.

2. Theory group achievements
According Stogdill (1959) tepri theories about the group in general is based on the concept of interaction has kelemaham-specific weaknesses. Therefore Stogdill proposed his theory based on the input (input), variable media, and achievements (output) group.
3. The contingency model for effective leadership
This theory was developed by Fiedler based experiments. The goal is to identify, prioritize certain personality traits that differentiate effective leaders of the types of other leaders.

4. descriptive model of social response
Theory also called model of diamond (diamond model) developed by Willis (1964.1965). Associated with responses to social influences.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sarwono, Sarlito Wirawan (2010). SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY THEORIES. Jakarta: PT RajaGrafindo PERSADA.